REVIEW OF "RITES OF PASSAGE" BY ARNOLD VAN GENNEP

INTRODUCTION

There are facts in life which sometimes we do not reflect upon. One of such is this fact of passage from one sphere, level, or stage in life to another and the rituals or rites that mark these transitions. It is in this light that Arnold Van Gennep tries to illumine our minds towards this reality. Thus, he began his work on “Rites of Passage” by underscoring different levels of civilizations in social groupings which are distinctly distinguished by profane or sacred. For Gennep, for a man to pass from one of these groupings to another; special conditions are to be fulfilled. This condition is applicable to all spheres of life be it priesthood or others. Thus, Gennep underlines incompatibility between profane and the sacred world, which a man cannot pass from one to the other without through an intermediary stage. Thus, social groups in such societies have magico-religious foundations, thus certain rites must be fulfilled. On this note, the life of an individual in any society is a series of passages from one age to another and must be accompanied by special acts and no act is free of sacred and ceremonies. Van Gennep asserts that in semi-civilized society every change in a person’s life involves actions and reaction and between sacred and profane (transition), whose essential purpose is to enable individuals to pass from one stage to another, even the universe is governed by such a periodicity. Hence, transition to another stage involves ritual/rites.


GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF RITES AND D PASSAGE

On rites, Gennep underlines two kinds of rites based on the manner of operation and function: sympathetic and contagious rites. Sympathetic rites are those rites based on belief world and dead. In addition to sympathetic rites are rituals with an animistic basis and dynamic rites based on a concept of a power such as mana. Contagious rites are based on a belief that natural or acquired characteristics are material are transmissle. He further pin points the distinction between direct rites and indirect rites. Direct rites are designed to produce results immediately, whereas indirect rites are kind of initially slow which set into motion some autonomous powers. Again, the author differentiates between positive and negative rites.

The Negative rites now known as taboos are prohibitions or command. Psychologically, negative rites correspond to negative volitions; just as positive rites are equivalent of positive volitions. Van Gennep notes the difficulty in determining whether a rite is animistic or dynamistic. Further, on attempt to clarify ceremonial patterns; the author singles out the importance of transitions rites of passage which he subdivided into: rites of separation; transition rites and rites of incorporation. Thus, a complete scheme of rites of passage includes: preliminal (rites of separation); liminal rites (rites of transition); and postliminal (rites of incorporation). And the gaol of rites Van Gennep underscores is no ensure a change of condition or a passage from one magico religious or secular sphere to another; and function of rites of passage is to reduce their harmful effects. Van Gennep here underscores the constitutive elements of religion which are theory and practice. Summarily, religion as theory could be dynamism which involves monistic or impersonal powers. It could be animistic which is either dualistic or personal. Animism takes forms of Toremisth; Spiritsm; polydemonism and theism. And religion involves technique (magic) which could be sympathetic; contagious, direct, indirect, positive or negative. Hence; religion is “magico-religious”.

Owing to magico-religious aspect of crossing; in second chapter of his work Van Gennep deals with the territorial passage which can provide a framework for rites of passage, underscoring the importance of “a magico-religious nature” in any transition or change of state. He also underscores the idea of sanctity of a territory so delimited has sometimes been confused with the belief in the sanctity of the entire earth as “earth matter”. Thus, the prohibition against entry territory is thus intrinsically magico-religious since some objects and places are consecrated and ritualized. For Genep, the transition is symbolic. It involves passage from one social and magico-religious position to another for instance when a king of Sparta went to war. It involves of rites of separation, transition and corporation. Hence, the rites of separation implies (direct rites of passage) by means of which a person leaves one world behind and enters a new one. For Gennep, this procedure is applicable to all facets of human life.

For the author, traditional passage involves rites of separation at the time of departure and by rites of incorporation. Purification constitutes rites of separation and the rites of incorporation. He calls rites of separation from a previous world, preliminal rites, those executed during the transitional stage, liminal (or threshold) rites and the ceremonies of incorporation into a new world, post-liminal rites. Van Gennep underscores that the rites pertaining to the threshold should be construed as direct and physical rites of entrance, of waiting and of departure, the rites of passage.


INDIVIDUAL AND GROUPS

This section is introducing to us how an individuals or groups are being viewed in foreign countries or native land. Individuals and groups are seen in different ways by different people in a different society or countries. An individual or group that does not have an immediate right, by birth or through specially acquired attributed, to enter a particular house and to become established in one of its sections is in a state of isolation. This isolation has two aspects which may be found separately or in combination: such a person is weak because he is outside a given group or society, but he is also strong since he is in the sacred realm with respect to the group’s members, for whom their society constitutes the secular world. In consequence, some people kill, strip, mistreat a stranger or without ceremony while others fear him, or take magico-religious protective measures against him or her as a danger to the community or a given society or countries because an action is taken as soon as possible like sending out signals for a gathering (e.g. fire, trumpet, drum) or the chief alone or with his warriors, goes before the strangers as a representative of his society, since the chief is in a better condition to sent for a delegate who will find out who the stranger is and its nature. Due to: - foreigners cannot immediately enter the territory of the tribe or the village, they must prove their intentions from afar and undergo a stage of rite, best know to the group, just as the African’s do in a traditional way like: (slap a hand clasp), exchanging of gifts, food or valuables, eating, drinking, smoking a pipe together, sacrificing animals, sprinkling of water or blood anointing being attaching to each other, or sitting on the same seat.

Secondly, this chapter goes further to tell us about rites of passages in different countries and native lands. For examples like in Shammer, an Arab tribe, Layard writes:
“The simple fact of pronouncing a word or a formula like the Moslem salaam also has the effect of creating at least a temporary bond that is why Moslems look for all sorts of ways to avoid giving a salaam to a Christian”.

The various forms of greeting also fall into the category of rites of incorporation, they vary to the extent to which the person arriving is a stranger to the house or to those he meets; as does the salaam among the Moslem and the Christians. As a stranger or strangers he is to introduce himself or herself in a limited way be the group and then, if he so desires to other restricted group and at the same time to the society at large. Here again people clap hands or make noises, separate themselves from the outside world by removing their shoes, coat, unite by eating or drinking together, or perform prescribed rites before the household deities.


PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH

The ceremony of pregnancy and childbirth go together. Attention is drawn to the customs of seclusion in special huts or in special parts of the home. It has been established that at the onset of pregnancy, a woman is placed in a state of isolation either for the sake of impurity or abnormality due to pregnancy. This is done to protect mother and child from evil forces. This varies according to culture and time. For instance, the order of pregnancy and childbirth rites among the Todas of India runs as follows:
1) When a woman becomes pregnant, she is forbidden to enter the villages or the sacred places.
2) In the fifth month there is a ceremony called “village we live.”
3) She invokes two deities, pirn and piri.
4) A ceremony marks the leaving of the hut, she drinks sacred milk.
5) She goes to live her home till the seventh month.
6) Became they practice polyandry, the ceremony of the bow and arrow establishes a social father for the unborn child.
7) The woman returns to her home.
8) She delivers in her house.
9) Two or three days later, mother and child go to live in a special hut.
10) The woman, her husband and child are dainted with impurity called “ichchil.”
11) Ceremonies are performed to protect them against evil spirit by drinking sacred milk.

Among the Hopi of Oraibi, the moment of childbirth is sacred to a woman. Her mother is present during labour. When the child arrives the mother assists. She disposes the placenta. Binds the baby umbilical cord. Takes the placenta to placenta hills, closest to the village. The seclusion lasts for forty days which are marked with different rituals and finally a return to normal life. In summary, there is a (1) separation (2) transition and (3) reintegration.

For the Koliadas, the expectant mother will remain unwashed, both body and clothes. She must not leave her house during the ninth month. She remains with the cloths she gave birth with for a period of one week. Gifts are brought to her in her secluded bed and the relatives spit on mother and child. For forty days she does not leave her house and does not have sexual relations. Then, after all this period, the return to normal life is marked by sprinkling of holy water in all corners of the house.

In the case of twins, the Basoko, in Congo, the mother is confined and only speaks to members of his family. A ceremony is performed after the children had grown up to bring them out to join the normal life actives of the society. The transitional period lasts until the children are six year old.

The Ngenta or Assam combine the entire children born in a particular year and perform a feast in honour of all of them. They do the same for those who have passed away. The have a general fertility ritual too.

CHILDHOOD RITES

The major concern of this section of the book is that of childhood rites. The childhood rites include the following:
- Cutting of the umbilical cord
- Sprinkling and baths
- Loss of the reminders of the umbilical cord.
- Naming
- The first hair cut
- The first meal with the family
- The first teeth, first walk, first outing
- Circumcision
- First dress according to sex.
The above ceremonies are grouped into three main rites-rites of separation, rites of transition and rites of incorporation. Some cultures do not have a particular ceremony for a particular rite. And there are always variations in culture.

The newborn child is considered “sacred” and the birth is only guaranteed and confirmed with the flavor of those present. The principal rite of separation is the cutting of umbilical cord and rites that surrounds the portion which dries and falls off by itself. Other rites of separation include putting the child into the care of another woman for the first few days. Societies who believe in transmigration and reincarnation have the rites of separation of the newborn child from the world of the dead and his incorporation into the society of the living. The ceremony of first bath is also considered as a rite of separation. The above ceremonies are as well considered as part of rites of transition (liminal).

Under rites of incorporation could be found naming ceremony, ritual nursing, the first tooth, etc. following the Hindu practice, the naming of the child takes places on the tenth day and two names are given to the child. An ordinary one which incorporates him among the living in general, and another which may be known only to his family. The first haircut is also a symbol of incorporation. In the Minhow culture of china, each family has a particular hairs style. Also in this culture, the newborn child in the fourth month is given “animal food” and placed in a chair for the first time. This culture also maintains that on the first birth anniversary, several toys representing tools of different occupations are placed before the child. The one that the child picks first is an indication of future character, profession and social status.

The childhood period lasts from birth until the age of sixteen. The age sixteen, according to Doolittle is considered the beginning of “the age of maturity”. At this stage a ceremony of thanks is performed in thanksgiving to the deity “mother” goddess of children among the Minhow people.

Moreover, the Minhow people have a ceremony called “passing through the door.” This takes place from birth time through the time of departure from childhood. This act is meant to ward-off anything that is unfavourable.


INVITATION RITES

In this chapter, the author exposes and brings to limelight various initiation rites among different tribes especially the “the rite of passage” between puberty and adolescence. It should be noted that these initiation rites take different forms; it can be for acceptance or separation. The author moves further to buttress the point that physiological puberty are essentially different and are rarely converged. In the course of establishing a transition from childhood to adolescence, the physiological signs can be evident; in girls a swelling of the breast, an enlargement of the pelvis, the presence of pubic hairs and above all the first menstruation period mark it. While in boys, it is establishing in the opinion of the public by the growth of beards, pubic hairs, and some other outstanding features. Though ethnic and individual variations occur.

On the other hand, social puberty may depend on occupation performed by the individual, for the boys they imitate their fathers in hunting, farming, and as a warrior. While for girls, the ages that are lawfully permitted to marry marks their transition, though variation in culture should not be overlooked.

The initiation rite of circumcision has no physiological significance. In the Jewish community, cutting off of the foreskin of the individual does. Circumcision is similar to putting out a tooth in some part of Australia, cutting off the little finger above the last joint in South Africa. Notably, the mutilated individual enters into a defined group since the operation leaves ineradicably the traces making the incorporation permanent.

In Navaho, their initiation rites are marked by whipping which is clearly a first rite of separation then a rite of incorporation. This first degree was that of the catechumen, which involved-exsufflation with a formula of exorcism, the sign of the cross on the forehead and the administration of salt, which had been exorcised. In the transition period, the catechumens were permitted to attend religious assemblies and have special place in the church, though not required to commune in the mass through the Holy Eucharist. In the incorporation rites, the cross made on their foreheads and approved by a deity. Unit the same vein, the intuition in Islam is achieves through circumcision and the recitation of the fatiha.

Furthermore, the author exposes the processes of membership in the caste system, which he believes in hereditary. Though the caste is also occupationally specialized and each person has his assigned place in a precise hierarchy. It is important to note that incorporation into the caste occurs under specified conditions.

 A child is incorporated through ceremonies that fall under childhood rites.
More so, the tools pertaining to a given occupation assumes an important place here because it is a true rite of incorporation that places an individual in a restricted collectivity.
 Although one cannot move upwards from a lower caste to a higher one, a person can move in a reverse direction. In this case, the rites of incorporation either are simplified or show a pivoting, because it is a lower caste that is honored and the new arrivals.
 Each caste is separated from all others by taboos, such that touching, eating, lying down or entering the house of a person in a lower caste automatically removes one from his own caste, though he is not incorporated in the caste of the person he has touched.

The ceremonies of the enthronement of kings, ordination of priests, magicians and the consecration of virgins are sometimes divine in nature. According to Frazer, he avers that the ceremonies of enthronement or crowning show a very great resemblance to the ordination ceremonies both in details and in order. In the enthronement of the king, there are two cases to be considered: the successor may be enthroned during the life time of his predecessor or after his death. On the other, it can be done by a special title whereby the predecessor is put to death by his successor. In either case, the primary fact is that there is a handing over and an acceptance of the Sacra which here is called “regalia” - including drums, a scepter, a crown, relies of the ancestors and a special seat. Thus, these are the symbols and the receptacle of royal magico-religious power.
From the foregoing, the author in a nutshell exposed various ways in which initiation rites are been carried out in different places at different events and with divergent methods.



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE

The author continues with his thoughts on the issues of rites of passage. At this point attention is give to the very important dimension of life – marriage. After the initiation and the rites of entrance into adulthood, the individual gradually becomes ripe to assist the society in the act of procreation which is established through the passage into marital life. Since marriage is at the heart of the society (means of sustaining the generation), it requires an important transitory period called “betrothal”. This rite involves the two individuals transiting into the status of marriage, their families and communities. This rite takes different forms depending on culture. In some, the parents of the two individuals agree that their children would marry when they grow up. Then this is concretized by dropping a piece of cloth belonging to each of them in other’s home. In some others, the boy and girl involved are first married to a mango and mahua trees respectively by an embrace which is a rite of initiation into another level of life. Most cultures maintain a given period of time within which this betrothal would last. In some it is longer (ones that start at infancy), in some cases, the two individuals are allowed sexual relationship, others abhor such. In sum, this betrothal period has always been understood as transitory stage towards marriage. The rites that accompany this period all tend towards preparation for marriage.

Generally, marriage rites reflect the same symbolic meanings but little divergences occur from one society to another. Since this is a passage from adolescence hood into marital status, those concerned transit from their sex group into married category, (for girls, in another clan). Certain rites are used to depict this movement. In some cultures the spouse-to-be would jump obstacles which is indication of transition form one stage to another. In some others like Khond of India, the girl’s age mates (girls) would fight the boy’s mates (boys) at the boundary of the boy’s village till they enter the village then the fight will cease. This also symbolizes a separation of the two from their former sex groups, (family and village for the girl). The author mentions many other symbolizations of this rite of separation – cutting, breaking or throwing away something connected to childhood; shaving the hair or beard; preliminary perforation of the hymen and all other mutilations; beating of insulting of childhood friends or being beating and insulted by them; etc.

Then, marriage ceremony and its rites take different shapes and forms depending on culture. For instance within our own cultural framework – Igbo, the “igba nkwu” ceremony is very outstanding. Although the author did not use it as instance, it gives us insight into what marriage rite looks like. In sum, marriage rite establishes the girl and boy in the category of socially adult women and men, and nothing can take this from them. More still the bond between their families is not broken by separation of the spouse which is rear.

FUNERAL

Funerals are the moment of apparent separation between the living and the dead. This is a moment one (the deceased) embarks on a journey to the other world (the world of the dead) and the entrance to it comprises a series of ceremonies which are known as the rites of passage of separation from the living. There are prescribed ceremonies which vary form one culture to another, which are performed to accompany the dead into the other world. At this period, depending on the closeness and kinship, social life is suspended for all those affected. It also extends to the larger community if the deceased is a prominent person (recognized as such by the community).

Natural religion believes that when one dies, the individual has to go through obstacle (rivers, dark valleys, gullies) and these challenges are only minimized by the proper performance of the ceremonies associated with funerals. They also believe in continuity of life after death, thus, the dead is buried with his or her earthly tools or utensils. Coins are included in this rite which symbolically enable the dead to settle all his or her dept and also pave the way if need be. However, it is only those who lived according to the norms of the society that are given all the rites to enable them travel well into the land of the dead.

Furthermore, those whose death have some unwelcome mysteries attached to it like premature death, killed (by human or animal), drowning, suicide etc, are not given the same kind of rite and they remain evil spirits. Such persons cannot enter into the land of the dead – the home of the ancestors and ancestress. This separation of the dead is not a total one because the living and dead still communicate through commemoration and reincarnation. This communication is reflects in the prayers said before the dead is finally commended into the grave which involves asking him or her to help protect the living, to send their good will messages to the ancestral home. The food eaten, songs sang are all part of this funeral rite. The ceremony is concluded with the solemn placing of the dead into the grave. At this climax moment, there is felling of sorrow, sadness and also reflection on life by the living.



OTHER RITES OF PASSAGE

The chapter nine of this work hinges on the other types of rites of passage which are not so pronounced. It tries to demonstrate that each rite of passage is really a rite of either separation, transition, or incorporation.
 Any rite may be interpreted in several ways, depending on whether it occurs within a complete system or in isolation, whether it is performed at one occasion or another.
 However, all rites which include the act of cutting, on the one hand, and of tying, on the other, hardly present material for discussion.
 The author explains circumcision as a rite of separation. According to him, in the rites of incorporation there is widespread use of the “sacred bond”, the “sacred cord”, the knot and of analogous forms such as the belt, the ring, the bracelet, and crown. These are common in the rites of marriage and enthronement.

Other rites like rites involving hair, veiling, the use of special languages, sexual rites, practices of flagellation, seasonal rites and some others were presented thus:

(i) Rite of hair includes two distinct operations: cutting the hair, dedicating, consecrating or sacrificing it. For instance, cutting separates one from the previous world; to dedicate binds one to the sacred world and more to a deity or a Spirit.

(ii) Rite of veil - people veil their hairs while worshipping the gods.
This means to separate them from the profane to live only in the sacred world. During marriages, sacrifice worship, this rite is performed. Example, during marriage the veiling signifies separation from the previous union with the new. The veiling practices of the Moslem women Jewish women of Tunisia are examples of this veiling for separation. Then, in Catholicism, to pass from a liminal stage (Novitiate) to the stage of permanent incorporation into the community is to “take the veil”.

(iii) Language Rite: during most of the ceremonies, especially during the transition periods, a special language is employed which in some cases includes an entire vocabulary unknown in the society as a whole. There are languages for women, for initiates, for blacksmiths, for priests (Liturgical language).

(iv) Sexual Rite - A prohibition of the sex act is a component of most sets of ceremonies should not be classed separately any more than should special languages.
(v) Flagellation- its importance in the psychology of sex is known: it is one of the most powerful means of erotic stimulation. He whipping can be used to stimulate sexual pleasure. E.g. in “Liberia and Congo”.
(vi) Seasonal Rites – this marks the seasons of the year’s events.

In chapter ten of this work which tries to conclude the ideas brought up in this work. After this research about ceremonies, we have seen that an individual is placed in various sections of society, synchronically in succession; in other to pass from one category to another to join individuals in sections, he or she must submit, from the day of his or her birth to that of his/her death to ceremonies whose forms often vary but whose function is similar.

CONCLUSION

In the final analysis, we can deduce from the view of the author that naturally human beings necessarily move from one level of growth to another – physiological, spiritual, social etc. No individual can possibly, in any way extricate him or her self from this natural reality. If no other thing, for the fact that the individual is given birth to, implies that he or she must grow and finally must die. Then, in the process of these movements from one level to another, in every dimension of life, every culture prescribes rites (rituals) to depict and accompany that individual in the transitions. This is the basic point Gennep injects to our knowledge in this “Rites of Passage”. It is therefore left for us to examine our different cultures and discover how these rites are performed and their various significances to our life activities.

Comments

Thank you... This is really helpful...!!!
Unknown said…
Thank you. This is brilliant!

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